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Leadership

Building Stronger Teams: The Impact of Athlete Leadership on Cohesion

Researchers have extensively studied the shared nature of athlete leadership, highlighting the distribution of leadership roles among various team members rather than solely relying on a select few (Cotterill & Fransen, 2016; Loughead, 2017). This distribution includes both formal leadership roles, such as captains or assistant captains assigned by coaching staff or through team selection, as well as informal leadership roles that naturally develop through interactions over time (Loughead, 2017). When athlete leadership incorporates both formal and informal leaders, it creates an environment where different teammates can assume leadership roles as appropriate, fostering a shared dynamic team process characterized by mutual influence and shared responsibility towards achieving team goals (Loughead et al., 2019, 2021).

The strong link between athlete leadership and team cohesion is not surprising, as highlighted by interviews with coaches and athlete leaders. Coaches emphasize the importance of athlete leader interactions in fostering cohesion within their teams (Bucci et al., 2012). Similarly, athlete leaders themselves recognize their critical responsibility in developing cohesion among their teammates (Caron et al., 2016). This shared belief stems from the inherent connection between athlete leadership and cohesion, as both concepts revolve around striving towards common goals and objectives. Meta-analyses have consistently shown that cohesion has a moderate to large positive impact on team performance (Carron et al., 2002; Grossman et al., 2021). Understanding the interplay between athlete leadership and cohesion becomes essential for optimizing team dynamics and achieving higher levels of performance.

In this blog post, I delve into the key findings of my first doctoral study regarding athlete leadership behaviours and their impact on task and social cohesion. By understanding and implementing these behaviours, coaches and athletes can foster a more cohesive and goal-oriented team environment.

Task Cohesion:

  • Athlete leaders who display behaviours aimed at improving team member performance, promoting teamwork, and problem-solving enhance task cohesion.
  • This means actively working with teammates to enhance their skills, encouraging collaboration and communication, and finding solutions to challenges together.
  • Providing positive reinforcement, involving team members in decision-making, and setting high standards fosters a sense of closeness and alignment towards achieving shared goals.
  • Recognizing and acknowledging individual and team accomplishments, seeking input and involvement from all team members in important decisions, and establishing challenging but achievable performance expectations contribute to a stronger sense of unity and purpose.

Social Cohesion:

  • Athlete leaders who demonstrate concern for teammates’ welfare, establish healthy interpersonal relationships, and promote teamwork foster social cohesion.
  • This involves showing empathy, offering support, and fostering a positive and inclusive team environment where everyone feels valued and connected.
  • Involving team members in decision-making, providing positive reinforcement, and prioritizing social support enhance personal acceptance, bonding, and a sense of closeness within the team.
  • Including teammates in discussions and choices, recognizing and celebrating individual and collective efforts, and creating opportunities for team members to support and uplift each other contribute to a stronger sense of camaraderie and belonging.

Developing Cohesion-Building Behaviours

  • Coaches and practitioners can incorporate targeted training programs focusing on influential athlete leadership behaviours.
  • This involves designing structured activities and exercises that specifically address the behaviours associated with enhancing task and social cohesion.
  • Encourage athlete leaders to emphasize positive reinforcement, involve teammates in decision-making, and set high standards for the team to enhance task cohesion.
  • Providing guidance and feedback to athlete leaders to actively reinforce positive behaviours, involve their teammates in important decisions, and establish challenging performance goals.
  • Prioritize the development and display of behaviours that promote team members’ well-being, encourage teamwork and creativity, and provide positive reinforcement to foster social cohesion.
  • Creating a supportive team culture that prioritizes the mental and emotional well-being of team members, encourages collaboration and innovation, and celebrates achievements and growth.
  • Identify and nurture potential athlete leaders who naturally exhibit these behaviours, further enhancing cohesion within the team. Recognizing and cultivating individuals who naturally demonstrate leadership qualities, providing them with opportunities for growth and development, and empowering them to positively influence their teammates.

Conclusion

Athlete leadership plays a vital role in fostering task and social cohesion within sports teams. By implementing specific behaviours that enhance task cohesion, such as performance improvement, welfare, creativity, and teamwork, coaches can cultivate a team environment driven by shared goals. Similarly, prioritizing behaviours that foster social cohesion, such as concern for welfare, interpersonal relationships, teamwork, and positive reinforcement, creates a tightly-knit team culture based on support and unity. Embracing these leadership behaviours not only strengthens team cohesion but also leads to improved team dynamics, motivation, and overall performance. With a focus on athlete leadership, coaches and athletes can pave the way for success on and off the field.

References

Bucci, J., Bloom, G. A., Loughead, T. M., & Caron, J. (2012). Ice hockey perceptions of athlete leadership. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24(3), 243-259. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2011.636416

Caron, J. G., Bloom, G. A., Loughead, T. M., & Hoffmann, M. D. (2016). Paralympic athlete leaders’ perceptions of leadership and cohesion. Journal of Sport Behavior, 39(3), 219-238.

Carron, A. V., Colman, M. M., Wheeler, J., & Stevens, D. (2002). Cohesion and performance in sport: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24(2), 168-188. 10.1123/jsep.24.2.168

Cotterill, S. T., & Fransen, K. (2016). Athlete leadership in sport teams: Current understanding and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9(1), 116-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2015.1124443

Grossman, R., Nolan, K., Rosch, Z., Mazer, D., & Salas, E. (2021). The team cohesion-performance relationship: A meta-analysis exploring measurement approaches and the changing team landscape. Organizational Psychology Review, 12(2), 1-58.  https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211041157

Loughead, T. M. (2017). Athlete leadership: A review of the theoretical, measurement, and empirical literature. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 58-61.  10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.014

Loughead, T. M., Duguay, A. M., & Hoffmann, M. D. (2019). Athlete leadership in football. In E. Konter, J. Beckmann, & T. M. Loughead (Eds.), Football psychology: From theory to practice (pp. 91-100). Routledge.

Loughead, T. M., Munroe-Chandler, K. J., Boisvert, M. M., & Hirsch, K. E. (2021). Athlete Leadership. In E. Filho & I. Basevitch (Eds.), Sport, exercise and performance psychology: research directions to advance the field. (pp. 161-176). Oxford University Press.

 

Concussion

Understanding the NHL’s 2022-23 Concussion Evaluation and Management Protocol

Concussions are a serious concern in sports, including ice hockey. To prioritize the well-being of NHL players and officials, the National Hockey League (NHL) and the National Hockey League Players’ Association (NHLPA) have established a comprehensive Concussion Evaluation and Management Protocol for the 2022-2023 season.

This protocol, consistent with the 5th International Conference on Concussion in Sport held in Berlin in 2016, outlines the procedures that clubs must follow regarding education, testing, identification, evaluation, and management of concussions (McCrory et al., 2017).

Education

  • Educational Video: Prior to the start of training camp, clubs are required to show the 2022 Concussion Educational Video to all players, coaches, club medical personnel, and management. Attendees must sign an attendance sheet, and the club must submit it to the league. Players joining the club after training camp should also watch the video.
  • Educational Brochure: The NHL Concussion Education Program FAQ Brochure must be provided to all attendees of the concussion educational video. Additionally, players diagnosed with a concussion should receive a copy of the brochure for distribution to their family and close friends.
  • Concussion Poster: Clubs must prominently display the Concussion Poster in their home, practice, and visiting dressing rooms. Translated versions should be distributed as necessary, and the NHLPA also posts translated versions on its player website.
  • Visible Signs Video: Clubs must show the 2022/23 Visible Signs Training Video to coaches, club medical personnel, and management. Attendees must sign an attendance sheet, which is submitted to the league.
  • Educational Meetings: Medical directors, head and assistant athletic trainers, and club consulting neuropsychologists are required to participate in concussion education sessions. NHL head coaches must participate in a remote Zoom session, while assistant coaches may attend the session or watch a recorded link.

Baseline Testing

Clubs must administer baseline testing to all players at the start of training camp, or conditioning camp if applicable. Baseline testing includes:

  • SCAT5 App: All players on a club’s reserve list must undergo baseline testing using the NHL Modified SCAT5 (Echemendia et al., 2017) app annually. Players scoring below the 5th percentile on SCAT5 learning/delayed recall must be retested the next day. If the player’s scores remain below the 5th percentile, they are referred to the club consulting neuropsychologist for further evaluation.
  • ImPACT: Players are required to undergo ImPACT baseline testing by the club’s consulting neuropsychologist. The frequency of testing depends on the player’s entry into the league and diagnosed concussions.
  • Paper and Pencil Testing: Players diagnosed with a concussion in the previous season must undergo evaluation using the NHL Paper and Pencil test battery.

Identification of Possible Concussion

The NHL protocol mandates the immediate removal of players from play if a concussion is suspected. Identification can be based on visible signs or reported symptoms. Visible signs include lying motionless on the ice, motor incoordination, a blank or vacant look, or being slow to get up. Additionally, players who report or exhibit symptoms indicative of a concussion must undergo an acute evaluation. Both clubs and league spotters, including central league spotters and in-arena league spotters, play a role in observing players’ behavior during games to identify potential concussions.

Acute Evaluation

The first crucial step in the NHL concussion protocol is the acute evaluation conducted by the Club Physician and/or Club Athletic Trainer/Therapist. This evaluation takes place in a resting state, within a distraction-free environment. It includes a clinical assessment utilizing the SCAT5 App (Echemendia et al., 2017), a valuable tool that provides information but is not used in isolation for diagnosing concussions. Additional components of the evaluation include a focused neurological examination, review of video footage, and assessment of the vestibular and ocular motor systems. These assessments collectively contribute to determining the presence of a concussion.

Management of Concussion

Upon diagnosis of a concussion, players enter a structured management process. Immediate physical and cognitive rest is prescribed for an initial period of 24-48 hours. After this period, a graded return-to-play progression is initiated. This progressive approach ensures that cognitive and physical symptoms are not provoked or worsened. The duration of each step in the progression may vary based on factors such as the player’s age, medical history, and individualized management. Throughout the recovery process, Club Medical Personnel closely monitor the player’s progress, considering any concurrent morbidities.

Post-Concussion Evaluation

Before a player can participate in on-ice activities involving controlled body contact, they must undergo a post-concussion evaluation conducted by the Club’s Consulting Neuropsychologist. This evaluation involves a comprehensive clinical interview, administration of neurocognitive tests such as ImPACT, and the NHL Paper and Pencil neuropsychological test battery. Baseline and post-injury data, along with acute medical evaluation reports, are shared with the Consulting Neuropsychologist to provide a comprehensive assessment of the player’s condition.

Return to Play

A player can only return to unrestricted play once specific criteria are met. These criteria include complete recovery of concussion-related symptoms at rest, the absence of symptoms during exertion required for competitive play, and the completion of a graded return-to-play progression. The Club Physician, in consultation with the Consulting Neuropsychologist, must determine that the player has returned to their neurological and neurocognitive baselines. The Club Physician holds sole responsibility for clearing a player for return to play, ensuring compliance with all aspects of the protocol.

Compliance and Sanctions

Compliance with the NHL concussion protocol is vital for player safety. Clubs failing to remove a player requiring evaluation or neglecting to use mandatory assessment tools, such as the SCAT5 App and neuropsychological assessments, may face sanctions. A first offense incurs a minimum fine of $25,000, with substantially increased fines for subsequent offenses in the same season. Players who refuse evaluation and remain on the bench cannot return to the game until cleared by the Club’s Medical Personnel according to the protocol.

Conclusion

Concussion management in the NHL has evolved significantly to prioritize player health and safety. The league’s comprehensive concussion protocol includes thorough acute evaluations, meticulous management plans, post-concussion evaluations by Consulting Neuropsychologists, and strict criteria for return to play. By implementing these measures and enforcing compliance, the NHL demonstrates its commitment to protecting the well-being of its athletes. Continued research and improvement in concussion protocols will undoubtedly play a crucial role in ensuring the long-term health of players and the future of the sport.

References

Echemendia, R. J., Meeuwisse, W., McCrory, P., Davis, G. A., Putukian, M., Leddy, J., … & Herring, S. (2017). The sport concussion assessment tool 5th edition (SCAT5): background and rationale. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(11), 848-850. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097506

McCrory, P., Meeuwisse, W., Dvorak, J., Aubry, M., Bailes, J., Broglio, S., … & Vos, P. E. (2017). Consensus statement on concussion in sport—the 5th international conference on concussion in sport held in Berlin, October 2016. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(11), 838-847. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097699

NHL Public Relations. (2022, July 15). NHL concussion evaluation and management protocol for 2022-23 season [Press release]. https://www.nhl.com/news/nhl-concussion-evaluation-and-management-protocol-for-2022-23-season/c-335002568

 

Abuse in Sport

Silent Suffering: Unmasking Child Maltreatment in Sports

Child maltreatment is a grave concern within the realm of organized sport, affecting a significant proportion of young participants. The impact of interpersonal violence in sport, encompassing various forms of abuse, such as bullying, peer violence, and sexual assault, cannot be ignored (Parent et al., 2023). Recent studies have revealed distressing statistics, with a staggering 75% to 86% of sport participants reporting experiences of interpersonal violence before the age of 18 (Hartill et al., 2021; Pankowiak et al., 2022; Parent & Vaillancourt-Morel, 2021; Vertommen et al. 2022). These studies found that between 27% and 38% of sport participants reported having experienced sexual violence, between 40% and 66% reported physical violence, and between 65% and 75% reported psychological violence or neglect in sport. 

These numbers highlight the urgent need to address child maltreatment in sport and its potential long-term consequences on the mental health and well-being of adolescents (Parent et al., 2023). The high-profile cases of sexual abuse involving child athletes, including the UK football sexual abuse scandal, the case of ski coach Bertrand Charest in Canada, and the actions of Larry Nassar in the USA, have starkly revealed the unsettling truth that young athletes are susceptible to maltreatment within the sporting context (Fortier et al., 2020). These distressing instances serve as compelling examples, shedding light on the prevalence of child maltreatment in sport. It is important to recognize that people in positions of authority over young athletes, such as coaches, parents, officials, administrators, or members of the medical team, represent potential perpetrators (Fortier et al., 2020). The unique characteristics of the sport environment, such as the importance placed on the coach-athlete relationship, the intensity of youth sport, the demands of competition, media attention on young athletes, time spent in distant training centers, recruitment procedures, and the distance from home or school environment, make young athletes particularly vulnerable to this form of violence (Fortier et al., 2020).

Recognizing the prevalence and impact of child maltreatment in sport, it is essential for all stakeholders, including coaches, mental performance consultants, and medical staff, to adopt a trauma-informed approach in their interactions with sport participants (McMahon et al., 2022). A trauma-informed approach involves understanding and attending to the specific needs of individuals affected by trauma, providing a safe space for expression and empowerment. Implementing screening measures for interpersonal violence in sport and child maltreatment, coupled with organizational and social changes, can contribute to preventing revictimization and fostering a safer sporting environment (Parent and Fortier, 2018; Roberts et al., 2020). The World Health Organization (WHO) acknowledges the existence of four distinct forms of maltreatment: physical, sexual, psychological, and neglect (Fortier et al., 2020). By identifying and categorizing these forms, the WHO highlights the various ways in which individuals may experience harm or mistreatment. This recognition underscores the importance of addressing each form of maltreatment to ensure the well-being and safety of individuals in diverse settings.

Physical Maltreatment of Children in Sport

Physical maltreatment of children in sport involves various forms of inappropriate physical contact. This includes actions such as shaking, pushing, catching, or throwing a child athlete. It also encompasses striking an athlete with a hand, punching or kicking them, or using a hard object to harm them. More severe forms of physical maltreatment involve choking, strangling, poisoning, burning, or stabbing a child athlete.

Sexual Maltreatment of Children in Sport

Sexual maltreatment of children in sport encompasses a range of behaviours that involve sexual relations with a child athlete. These include penetrative acts such as oral, vaginal, or anal penetration. Attempted acts of sexual penetration are also a form of sexual maltreatment. Other forms include caressing or sexually touching the body of a child athlete, engaging in oral sex, stroking genitals, rubbing against genitals, or touching non-genital regions in a sexual manner. Exhibitionism, exploitation, verbal sexual harassment, and voyeurism involving child athletes are additional manifestations of sexual maltreatment in the sporting context.

Psychological Maltreatment of Children in Sport

Psychological maltreatment of children in sport involves various harmful behaviours that target the emotional well-being of a child athlete. This includes terrorizing or threatening violence against them, such as threatening to abandon or harm the child or someone they care about. Verbal abuse, humiliation, and ridicule are forms of psychological maltreatment. Additionally, isolation and confinement, lack of support or affection, and behaviours that promote corruption, exploitation, or unhealthy behaviours in child athletes contribute to psychological maltreatment.

Neglect of Children in Sport

Neglect of children in sport can manifest in physical and emotional forms. Physical neglect includes failure to supervise a child athlete, allowing them to participate in training or competitions while injured despite medical advice, and neglecting the safety of athletic equipment. Medical neglect refers to the refusal of parents to provide necessary medical care for their child athlete’s diagnosed health problems resulting from their sport. Emotional neglect involves permissive attitudes towards antisocial or criminal behaviour, failure to intervene in instances of abuse or violence, and neglecting the psychological or psychiatric needs of a child athlete. Abandonment, where a child athlete is left without supervision during training, competition, or trips, is also a form of emotional neglect.

To effectively combat child maltreatment in sport, it is essential to follow certain key principles and strategies:

  • Foster open communication. Establish trusting relationships with young athletes, encouraging them to disclose any concerns or experiences of maltreatment.
  • Recognize behavioural indicators. Be vigilant about sudden changes in behaviour, unexplained injuries, withdrawal, anxiety, or other signs that may suggest maltreatment.
  • Develop comprehensive policies. Implement clear codes of conduct, reporting mechanisms, and consequences for misconduct to ensure child protection within sports organizations.
  • Provide training programs. Educate coaches, staff, and volunteers on recognizing and responding to child maltreatment, emphasizing empathy, appropriate boundaries, and vigilance.
  • Emphasize core values. Promote respect, empathy, and fair play as fundamental values within the sporting community to create a culture of safety and support.

References

Fortier, K., Parent, S., & Lessard, G. (2020). Child maltreatment in sport: smashing the wall of silence: a narrative review of physical, sexual, psychological abuses and neglect. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54(1), 4-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100224

Hartill, M., Rulofs, B., Lang, M., Vertommen, T., Allroggen, M., Cirera, E., Diketmueller, R., Kampen, J., Kohl, A., Martin, M., Nanu, I., Neeten, M., Sage, D., Stativa, E. (2021). CASES: Child abuse in sport: European Statistics – Project Report. Ormskirk, UK: Edge Hill University.

McMahon, J., McGannon, K. R., Zehntner, C., Werbicki, L., Stephenson, E., & Martin, K. (2022). Trauma-informed abuse education in sport: engaging athlete abuse survivors as educators and facilitating a community of care. Sport, Education and Society, 1-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2022.2096586

Pankowiak, A., Woessner, M. N., Parent, S., Vertommen, T., Eime, R., Spaaij, R., … & Parker, A. G. (2023). Psychological, physical, and sexual violence against children in Australian community sport: frequency, perpetrator, and victim characteristics. Journal of interpersonal violence, 38(3-4), 4338-4365.https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221114155

Parent, S., Clermont, C., Radziszewski, S., Vertommen, T., & Dion, J. (2023). Child Maltreatment and Links with Experiences of Interpersonal Violence in Sport in a Sample of Canadian Adolescents. Social Sciences, 12(6), 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12060336

Parent, S., & Fortier, K. (2018). Comprehensive overview of the problem of violence against athletes in sport. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 42(4), 227-246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723518759448

Parent, S., & Vaillancourt-Morel, M. P. (2021). Magnitude and risk factors for interpersonal violence experienced by Canadian teenagers in the sport context. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 45(6), 528-544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0193723520973571

Roberts, V., Sojo, V., & Grant, F. (2020). Organisational factors and non-accidental violence in sport: A systematic review. Sport Management Review, 23(1), 8-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.001

Vertommen, T., Decuyper, M., Parent, S., Pankowiak, A., & Woessner, M. N. (2022). Interpersonal violence in Belgian sport today: Young athletes report. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(18), 11745. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph191811745

Aggression in Sport

Exploring the Complexities of Aggression in Sport

Sports have historically been characterized by intense competition and physicality, raising ongoing debates about the acceptance and moral implications of aggression (Loughead & Dorsch, 2021). The National Hockey League (NHL) and other sports leagues have faced scrutiny regarding their approach to aggression and its impact on player safety. Concerns extend beyond physical injuries, with a growing focus on the ethical dimensions of aggression in sports. This blog explores the intricate interplay between aggression, morality, and behaviour within diverse sporting environments.

The NHL’s Battle with Aggression

The NHL has encountered criticism for allegedly prioritizing the promotion of violence and aggression over player safety (Loughead & Dorsch, 2021). Attention has particularly been drawn to the issue of head trauma and its long-term consequences, including Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE). Former NHL players have filed lawsuits, asserting that the league failed to address repeated concussions and their potential ramifications. These circumstances have ignited discussions surrounding the necessity for stricter rules and enforcement to minimize actions that may lead to head injuries. Influential figures like Ken Dryden, a celebrated Hockey Hall of Fame goalie and author, have voiced the urgency to eliminate aggressive hits to the head in hockey. Dryden argues that outdated notions of hockey’s traditional aggressive culture hinder essential reforms. He advocates for the implementation of stricter penalties for any violent act that could cause head injuries, with the goal of fostering a safer and more morally conscious playing environment (Loughead & Dorsch, 2021).

Aggression Beyond Hockey

Aggression is not confined to hockey alone. It permeates other sports as well, such as football, basketball, and soccer, manifesting through deliberate hits, player altercations, and even interactions with fans (Loughead & Dorsch, 2021). These instances shed light on the intricate relationship between aggression, morality, and behaviour across different sporting domains. The sporting environment plays a pivotal role in shaping moral conduct and promoting fair play (Loughead & Dorsch, 2021). Coaches hold significant influence over athletes’ behaviour, as demonstrated by studies revealing how athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ support for unsportsmanlike conduct impact their own actions (Shields et al., 2007). By fostering cooperation, team loyalty, respect for opponents, and perseverance, sports can provide valuable opportunities for moral development (Loughead & Dorsch, 2021).

Bullying Within Sports Teams

Aggressive behaviours are not limited to interactions between opposing teams but can also occur within teams themselves. Bullying, characterized by intentional harm and power imbalances, detrimentally affects athletes’ well-being (Loughead & Dorsch, 2021). Acts of bullying and hazing, influenced by team norms, create hostile environments. Aggressive behaviours between teammates are often overlooked in research, but addressing this issue is crucial. One notable example is Jonathan Martin, a 24-year-old player for the Miami Dolphins, who abandoned his beloved professional career mid-season and sought psychological treatment at a hospital. His decision was motivated by persistent name-calling, racial slurs, sexual comments about himself and his sister, monetary “fines,” and ridicule from teammates (Wells et al., 2014). Bullying encompasses various forms, including verbal, physical, social/emotional, sexual, prejudicial, and electronic, such as cyberbullying. The rise of social media has amplified concerns about electronic bullying within the realm of sports. Creating a safe and respectful team environment is essential in addressing these harmful behaviours (Kavanagh & Jones, 2014; Loughead & Dorsch, 2021; Wells et al., 2014).

Aggression in sport is a multifaceted issue that requires careful consideration. Here are some key takeaways to help reduce aggression in sport:

Punishment and Encouragement

  • Teach individuals that aggression does not pay by emphasizing fair play and discouraging aggressive behaviours.
  • Coaches and parents should ensure that the penalties or punishments for acts of aggression are more meaningful to athletes than any potential reinforcement.
  • Encourage and reward positive behaviours such as teamwork, unselfish play, and courage.
  • Provide young athletes with positive role models who demonstrate non-aggressive yet effective assertive behaviours.

Educational Interventions

  • Conduct workshops and educational programs to help individuals involved in sports understand the meaning of aggression, its causes, and the consequences associated with it.
  • Teach athletes, parents, coaches, officials, media personnel, and stakeholders how to control aggression and develop psychological skills to handle frustration, anger, and competitive situations effectively.
  • Include anger management techniques like diaphragmatic breathing, imagery, and distraction techniques to help athletes control high arousal associated with challenging situations.

Behavioural Modification Practices

  • Assist athletes in assuming responsibility for their behaviour through self-awareness and the development of strategies and coping skills.
  • Implement programs that help reduce the desire to behave aggressively, focusing on self-awareness and coping mechanisms.
  • Tailor interventions to increase the perpetrator’s empathy for the victim, considering gender differences.

Changes to the Sporting Environment:

  • Consider limiting the sale of alcoholic beverages at sporting events to reduce inhibitions that may lead to aggressive behaviour.
  • Promote sporting events as family-friendly affairs, creating an enjoyable experience where parents and children can learn about fair play.
  • Foster a supportive and respectful environment that values sportsmanship, cooperation, and fair competition.

Aggressive Behaviour in the Media:

  • Instead of sensationalizing and replaying acts of aggression, promote a campaign that highlights and glorifies assertive plays and players as role models.
  • Encourage the media to focus on and feature stories that promote non-aggressive behaviours and fair play.
  • Use media influence to discourage future aggressive behaviours between competitors and encourage attendance based on positive sporting experiences.

To promote a positive and ethical sporting culture, it is essential to address aggression, bullying, and hazing, both between teams and within them. By nurturing an environment that values fair play, respect, and the well-being of athletes, we can strive for a future where sports embody the true spirit of competition.

References

Loughead, T. M., & Dorsch, K. D. (2021). Aggression and moral behaviour in sport. In P. R. Crocker, C. Sabiston, & M. McDonough (Eds.). Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Canadian Perspective (pp. 110-132). Pearson.  

Kavanagh, E. J., & Jones, I. (2014). Virtual maltreatment in sport. In D. Rhind & C. Brackenridge (Eds.) Researching and enhancing athlete welfare. Proceedings of the second international symposium of the Brunel International Research Network for Athlete Welfare (BIRNAW) 2013 (pp. 34–43). London: Brunel University Press.

Shields, D. L., LaVoi, N. M., Bredemeier, B. L., & Power, F. C. (2007). Predictors of poor sportspersonship in youth sports: Personal attitudes and social influences. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 29, 747–762.

Wells, T. V., Karp, B. S., Birenboim, B., & Brown, D. W. (2014). Report to the National Football League concerning issues of workplace conduct at the Miami Dolphins. Miami, FL: Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton, & Garrison, LLP.

 

Leadership

Is A “C” Really Necessary?

The Rise of Athlete Leadership: Sharing Responsibilities for Team Success

Leadership in sports is highly regarded by coaches, athletes, fans, and the media (Loughead, 2017). Traditionally, coaches have been seen as the primary source of leadership within sports teams. However, a new form of leadership has emerged, known as athlete leadership, which originates from the athletes themselves (Loughead, 2017). Athlete leadership can be categorized into formal and informal roles. Formal leaders, such as captains, hold designated positions, while informal leaders naturally emerge through interactions with teammates (Loughead, 2017). This dynamic process of athlete leadership allows multiple athletes to assume leadership responsibilities within the team (Crozier, Loughead, & Munroe-Chandler, 2017).  This perspective on leadership opens up the opportunity for all team members to contribute leadership to their team. Athlete leadership can be seen as a shared responsibility among team members, shifting away from sole reliance on officially designated leaders.

Shared Leadership in Action

The Toronto Raptors, 2019 NBA Champions, are a good example of this concept, where multiple players stepped up to lead the team to glory.

Head coach Nick Nurse praised the leadership ability of point guard Kyle Lowry, emphasizing his basketball intelligence, profound understanding of the game, and unwavering determination. Lowry’s innate ability to inspire and guide his teammates surpassed mere statistical measures (Schuhmann, 2019). Another standout leader on the Raptors’ roster was small forward Kawhi Leonard, whose calm demeanor and consistent behaviour became a beacon of reassurance for the team. Regardless of the situation, Leonard’s composure instilled a sense of tranquility, assuring his teammates that everything would be alright (Madu, 2019). Shooting guard Danny Green made his mark on the team’s leadership through discipline, professionalism, and cultivating a positive team environment. He emphasized the importance of staying focused, supporting one another, and not dwelling on external factors beyond their control (Grange, 2018). Coach Nurse hailed Green as the epitome of an ultimate teammate, radiating positivity and bringing an infectious “come-on-let’s-go” attitude to the court (Grange, 2018).

The success of the Toronto Raptors can be attributed to the diverse array of leadership qualities displayed by these athletes. Their shared leadership approach aligned with research conducted by Fransen, Vanbeselaere and colleagues, which found that relying solely on a team captain to fulfill all leadership responsibilities is inadequate. Instead, the collective efforts of multiple team leaders contribute to a cohesive and victorious unit. The Toronto Raptors’ triumph serves as a compelling reminder of the power of shared leadership in sports. It transcends the traditional hierarchy, allowing each athlete to leverage their unique strengths and positively impact the team’s performance. As we look to the future, let us embrace the spirit of shared leadership, nurturing an environment where every player has the opportunity to contribute and inspire greatness.

The Changing Landscape of Team Captains

In recent times, the concept of shared athlete leadership has captured the attention of mainstream media, causing a stir within the National Hockey League. Renowned outlets like The Washington Post and Associated Press have started to question the relevance of designated team captains in today’s game. This shift became evident in early 2019 when six NHL teams, namely the Detroit Red Wings, Ottawa Senators, Toronto Maple Leafs, Vegas Golden Knights, New York Rangers, and Vancouver Canucks, found themselves without a formally designated captain (Khurshudyan, 2018).

Take, for instance, the Vancouver Canucks, who faced a leadership void following the retirement of their captain, Henrik Sedin. General manager Jim Benning made a deliberate choice not to name a new captain, believing that the team wasn’t quite ready for someone to fill Sedin’s monumental role. Instead, Benning opted for a different approach by appointing four players as alternate captains, allowing them to share the leadership responsibilities collectively (Khurshudyan, 2018).

A particularly intriguing case arose with the Vegas Golden Knights, who decided not to assign a captain for their inaugural season. This unconventional move aimed to alleviate the pressure on one individual. Instead, the team’s management embraced the philosophy of having “23 captains”, the entire roster. The results were astounding, as the Golden Knights defied expectations and reached the Stanley Cup Final in their very first season. Goaltender Marc-André Fleury emphasized the positive impact of shared leadership, stating, “Everyone chipped in… We kind of took charge of helping try to lead the team” (Whyno, 2018). Following their initial success, the Golden Knights continued the trend by keeping the captaincy vacant for their second season, maintaining the belief in “23 captains.” Forward Reilly Smith shed light on this decision, affirming the team’s commitment to a collective mindset: “Last year we needed 23 different leaders to be able to come together and build as a team. We try to work in a similar attitude and a similar mindset where it takes all of us” (Khurshudyan, 2018).

Leadership in sports is evolving, and shared athlete leadership is gaining prominence as a powerful approach. Here are key takeaways:

  • Embrace shared leadership as a valuable approach in sports, where multiple individuals contribute their leadership skills and qualities.
  • Recognize that effective leadership goes beyond formal titles and positions and can emerge naturally through interactions and communication within the team.
  • Foster a culture that encourages collaboration, support, and active participation from all team members.

References

Crozier, A. J., Loughead, T. M., & Munroe-Chandler, K. J. (2013). Examining the benefits of athlete leadership in sport. Journal of Sport Behavior, 34, 346-364.

Crozier, A. J., Loughead, T. M., & Munroe-Chandler, K. J. (2017). Top-down or shared leadership? Examining differences in athlete leadership behaviours based on leadership status in sport. Fizička kultura, 71(2), 86-98.

Fransen, K., Vanbeselaere, N., De Cuyper, B., Vande Broek, G., & Boen, F. (2014). The myth of the team captain as principal leader: Extending the athlete leadership classification within sport teams. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(14), 1389-1397.

Grange, M. (2018, September 26). Ultimate teammate’ Green boosts Raptors’ leadership, experience. Sportsnet. Retrieved from https://www.sportsnet.ca/basketball/nba/ultimate-teammate-green-boosts-raptors-leadership-experience/

Khurshudyan, I. (2018, November 27). No captain, my captain: Tradition-rich NHL teams are no longer giving players the ‘C’. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2018/11/27/no-captain-my-captain-tradition-rich-nhl-teams-are-no-longer-giving-players-c/?utm_term=.ce253418c397

Loughead, T. M. (2017). Athlete leadership: A review of the theoretical, measurement, and empirical literature. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 58-61.

Madu, Z. (2019, June 8). Kawhi Leonard is the perfect leader for the Raptors. SBNation. Retrieved from https://www.sbnation.com/2019/6/8/18657581/kawhi-leonard-raptors-warriors-nba-finals-leadership

Schuhmann, J. (2019, May 26). Lowry’s leadership lifts Raptors to first Finals appearance. NBA.com. Retrieved from http://www.nba.com/article/2019/05/26/toronto-raptors-nba-finals-kyle-lowry-game-6

Whyno, S. (2018, September 18) Nothing to ‘C’ here: Importance of NHL captains is changing. The Associated Press.Retrieved from https://apnews.com/ccb7900d318c42028f2be779e79f4a66

Youth Leadership

Unlocking Potential Leadership in Youth Sports

Leadership development is a critical aspect of youth sports, offering athletes the opportunity to cultivate valuable skills that extend beyond the playing field (Loughead et al., 2020). In this blog, I explore the significance of leadership in youth sports and offer practical ideas to foster leadership qualities among young athletes. Drawing from my published work on athlete leadership, I aim to provide valuable insights that can benefit coaches, parents, and mentors in their quest to nurture future leaders.

The Importance of Youth Athlete Leadership

Leadership plays a crucial role in youth sports, extending beyond the realm of athletic skills to encompass important life skills (Loughead et al., 2020). However, leadership development among young athletes requires intentional guidance and support. When it comes to effective team functioning, leadership is a key ingredient. But its impact goes far beyond the sports arena. Developing leadership skills in young athletes can lead to improved teamwork, enhanced communication, and personal growth (Loughead et al., 2020). It equips them with the tools needed to excel not only in sports but also in various aspects of their lives.

Leader Development: Building Strong Individuals

Effective leader development starts with nurturing individual athletes. While some athletes may naturally exhibit leadership qualities, deliberate training and support can significantly enhance their potential. Factors such as experience, skill development, personality traits, self-reflection, and feedback all contribute to the growth of a strong leader (Loughead et al., 2020). Coaches, parents, and mentors play a vital role in providing guidance and opportunities for personal growth and leadership development (Loughead et al., 2020).

Practical Strategies to Support Young Athletes

  • Encourage involvement: Encourage athletes to take on leadership roles within the team, such as captaincy or team representative. These experiences provide valuable opportunities to develop leadership skills.
  • Skill development: Offer workshops or training sessions focused specifically on leadership development. Teach athletes about effective communication, goal setting, decision-making, and problem-solving.
  • Mentorship programs: Pair young athletes with experienced leaders or mentors who can provide guidance and serve as role models. This allows athletes to learn from others’ experiences and gain valuable insights.
  • Feedback and reflection: Provide regular feedback to athletes, highlighting their strengths and areas for improvement. Encourage self-reflection to help athletes internalize their experiences and apply their learnings to future situations.

Leadership Development: Nurturing Interpersonal Skills

In addition to developing strong individuals, fostering leadership in youth sports also involves nurturing interpersonal skills and creating a team culture that embraces shared leadership. Here are some strategies to promote leadership development within the team:

  • Shared beliefs about leadership: Establish a common understanding of leadership within the team. Encourage open discussions about leadership values, expectations, and the role of each team member in leading and supporting one another.
  • Empowerment and collaboration: Create an empowering team environment where every member feels valued and capable of taking on leadership responsibilities. Encourage collaboration and coordination among team members to enhance overall team effectiveness.
  • Leadership-focused workshops: Organize workshops or team-building activities specifically designed to develop leadership skills and promote teamwork. Provide opportunities for athletes to practice leadership principles within the team.

Reference

Loughead, T. M., Hirsch, K. E., Boisvert, M. M., & Maechel, C. (2020). Athlete leadership in youth sport. In M. Bruner, M. A. Eys, & L. Martin (Eds.), The power of groups in youth sport (pp. 73-89). London, UK: Elsevier/Academic Press.

Leadership Development

Enhancing Athlete leadership Development in Sport Teams

Athlete leadership plays a crucial role in the success and functioning of sports teams (Cotterill & Fransen, 2016). In recent years, there has been increasing attention given to the concept of athlete leadership within team settings. This blog post aims to explore the topic of athlete leadership development, focusing on the sources of leadership within sports teams and the importance of developing leaders within the team. Drawing from narrative reviews and original research, I will discuss the roles of team captains and informal athlete leaders and delve into the significance of leadership development programs in enhancing team performance.

Leadership in Sports Teams

The concept of leadership in sports teams has been extensively studied and encompasses various definitions and theories. However, common features of leadership include the process of influencing others, occurring within the context of a group, and aiming to achieve common goals (Northouse, 2018). Within sports teams, leadership can be provided by coaches, formal athlete leaders (such as team captains), and informal athlete leaders. The emergence of athlete leadership as a crucial focus area has gained attention from managers, coaches, sport psychologists, and scholars alike (Day et al., 2014).

Team Captains

Team captains, as formal athlete leaders, hold a significant leadership role within many sports teams (Loughead, 2017). The captaincy role varies across sports, with distinct responsibilities and expectations. Good captaincy has been associated with improved team performance, and the role involves acting as a liaison between coaching staff and the team, leading during team activities, and representing the team at events and meetings (Fransen et al., 2020a). However, the role of the captain can differ significantly from sport to sport, emphasizing the need for context-specific understanding and development (Cotterill et al., 2019).

Informal Athlete Leaders

In addition to formal team captains, informal athlete leaders also contribute to leadership within sports teams. These leaders emerge through natural interactions with their teammates, regardless of their recognized leadership status (Loughead, 2017). Different leadership roles can be undertaken by both formal and informal leaders, including task leaders, motivational leaders, social leaders, and external leaders. Studies have shown that effective fulfillment of these leadership roles positively influences team cohesion, athlete satisfaction, team identification, team confidence, and overall team performance outcmes (Cotterill & Fransen, 2016; Loughead, 2017).

Importance of Leadership Development

 While leadership within sports teams has gained attention, there has been relatively less emphasis on developing leadership skills within the team context (Cotterill et al., 2022). However, developing leadership skills within a team has been associated with numerous benefits, including improved team cohesion, athlete satisfaction, team identification, team confidence, and a positive motivational climate (Cotterill et al., 2022). Teams with high-quality athlete leadership across various roles have demonstrated superior team effectiveness, including a stronger shared sense of purpose, higher commitment to team goals, and better team performance outcomes (Fransen et al., 2017).

Promising results have been observed through leadership development programs that target the specific leadership needs of the team and aim to enhance their leadership capabilities (Cotterill et al., 2022). These programs prioritize experiential learning, offering real-world opportunities for athletes to practice and refine their leadership skills (Cotterill et al., 2022). By focusing on developing the leadership abilities of individuals within the team, these programs have shown promising results in enhancing team cohesion, athlete satisfaction, team confidence, and overall performance (Cotterill et al., 2022).

Key takeaways for coaches:

  • Developing leadership skills and taking on leadership roles can enhance the overall performance of the team and individual athletes.
  • Athletes should actively seek opportunities to practice and apply their leadership skills in real-life situations, such as serving as team captains or taking on leadership responsibilities.
  • Recognize that team leadership is not solely the responsibility of the captain; it’s important to foster leadership qualities in all team members.
  • Provide support and guidance to athletes in formal leadership positions, such as team captains, to help them fulfill their roles effectively.
  • Implement leadership development programs that focus on building practical leadership competencies and skills, rather than just teaching theoretical concepts.

References

Cotterill, S., Cheetham, R., & Fransen, K. (2019). Professional rugby coaches’ perceptions of the role of the team captain. The Sport Psychologist, 33(4), 276-284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2018-0094

Cotterill, S. T., & Fransen, K. (2016). Athlete leadership in sport teams: Current understanding and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9(1), 116-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2015.1124443

Cotterill, S. T., Loughead, T. M., & Fransen, K. (2022). Athlete leadership development within teams: Current understanding and future directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820745

Day, D. V., Fleenor, J. W., Atwater, L. E., Sturm, R. E., & McKee, R. A. (2014). Advances in leader and leadership development: A review of 25 years of research and theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(1), 63-82.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.004

Fransen, K., Haslam, S. A., Mallett, C. J., Steffens, N. K., Peters, K., & Boen, F. (2017). Is perceived athlete leadership quality related to team effectiveness? A comparison of three professional sports teams. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20(8), 800-806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2016.11.024

Fransen, K., Haslam, S. A., Steffens, N. K., & Boen, F. (2020a). Standing out from the crowd: Identifying the traits and behaviors that characterize high‐quality athlete leaders. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 30(4), 766-786. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13620

Northouse, P. G. (2018). Leadership: Theory and Practice 8th Eds. Sage.

Loughead, T. M. (2017). Athlete leadership: A review of the theoretical, measurement, and empirical literature. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 58-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.014

Leadership

Trust in Leadership: The Key to Success in Sports Teams

Trust in leadership plays a crucial role in fostering effective teamwork and achieving success in sports teams (Dirks, 2000). It enables followers to accept their roles, work towards team goals, and facilitates open communication. While research in applied psychology has highlighted the significance of trust in leadership (Dirks, 2000), its exploration within the context of sports has been limited. This blog post aims to shed light on the importance of trust in athlete leadership, examining its antecedents and their impact on team performance.

The Impact of Trust in Leadership

Trust in leadership is a fundamental aspect of any relationship. In sports teams, where interdependence is high, trust becomes even more critical (Dirks, 2000). Without trust in their leaders, team members may lose motivation, focusing on personal interests rather than team goals (Joshi et al., 2009). Conversely, teams with highly trusted leaders are more likely to show commitment and cooperation, ultimately leading to better team performance (Dirks, 2000).

Antecedents of Trust in Leadership

Various factors influence trust in leadership within the sporting domain. Studies have shown that leaders perceived as displaying benevolence, ability, justice, and integrity are more likely to be trusted by their teammates (Zhang & Chelladurai, 2013). Athlete leaders who demonstrate care, support, and a genuine concern for their teammates’ well-being foster a sense of benevolence. Similarly, the perceived abilities of leaders, including technical skills, game strategy, and character building, contribute significantly to trust (Myers et al., 2011).

The Role of Benevolence and Ability

Perceived benevolence and ability of leaders have been consistently associated with trust in leadership (Zhang & Chelladurai, 2013). Athletes who trust their leaders’ good judgment and benevolence are more motivated to work harder and engage in behaviors beyond their role (Burke et al., 2007). A leader’s ability to provide new perspectives, develop their followers, and create a psychologically safe environment encourages open communication and team cohesion (Edmondson, 2004). In the context of athlete leadership, athletic ability also plays a role in trust development. Athletes in starting roles often fulfill leadership positions, as their athletic ability and confidence earn the respect of their teammates and coaches (Loughead et al., 2006; Brgoch et al., 2020). The relationship between athletic ability and leadership is a crucial consideration when selecting team captains.

Conclusion

Trust in leadership is an essential component for the optimal functioning and success of sports teams. Athlete leaders who exhibit benevolence and ability are more likely to be trusted by their teammates, leading to increased commitment and cooperation (Zhang & Chelladurai, 2013). Establishing trust in leadership involves creating a safe and supportive environment, demonstrating care for teammates, and showcasing reliable and respectable abilities. By understanding and nurturing trust in leadership, sports teams can unlock their full potential and achieve exceptional performance.

Key Takeaways:

  • Trust in leadership is crucial for effective teamwork and success in sports teams.
  • Trust enables followers to accept their roles, work towards team goals, and fosters open communication.
  • Leaders who demonstrate care, support, and create a safe environment encourage team cohesion and motivate athletes to go beyond their roles.
  • Athletic ability plays a role in trust development
  • Starting athletes often fulfill leadership roles, as their athletic ability and confidence earn respect from teammates and coaches.
  • Establishing trust in leadership requires creating a supportive environment, showcasing reliable abilities, and demonstrating care for teammates.
  • Nurturing trust in leadership is essential for unlocking a team’s full potential and achieving exceptional results.

References

Burke, C. S., Sims, D. E., Lazzara, E. H., & Salas, E. (2007). Trust in leadership: A multi-level review and integration. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(6), 606-632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.09.006

Brgoch, S. M., Lower-Hoppe, L. M., Newman, T. J., & Hutton, T. A. (2020). Exploring Team Captain Roles Associated with Athlete Leadership Classifications: Perspectives from Collegiate Coaches. Journal of Sport Behavior, 43(1).

Dirks, K. T. (2000). Trust in leadership and team performance: Evidence from NCAA basketball. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 445-456. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.6.1004

Edmondson, A. C. (2004). Psychological safety, trust, and learning in organizations: A group-level lens. In R. M. Kramer & K. S. Cook (Eds.), Trust and distrust in organizations: Dilemmas and approaches (pp. 239–272). New York, NY: Sage.

Joshi, A., Lazarova, M. B., & Liao, H. (2009). Getting Everyone on Board: The Role of Inspirational Leadership in Geographically Dispersed Teams. Organization Science, 20, 240-252.https://doi.org/10.1287/Orsc.1080.0383

Loughead, T. M., Hardy, J., & Eys, M. A. (2006). The nature of athlete leadership. Journal of Sport Behavior, 29, 142–159.

Myers, N. D., Beauchamp, M. R., & Chase, M. A. (2011). Coaching competency and satisfaction with the coach: A multi-level structural equation model. Journal of sports sciences, 29(4), 411-422.https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2010.538710

Zhang, Z., & Chelladurai, P. (2013). Antecedents and consequences of athlete’s trust in the coach. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 2, 115-121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2012.03.002